Elections gave governments legitimacy, so even authoritarian rulers held them. Ruling parties shaped the rules to make sure they won.
In Malaysia and Singapore, regular elections were the main source of legitimacy. Opposition parties could compete, and they sometimes won seats or states.
Ruling parties shaped the rules in their favour. In Malaysia, rural Malay seats had fewer voters than urban ones, which helped UMNO. In Singapore, Group Representation Constituencies, introduced in 1988, made it harder for small opposition parties to win.
Authoritarian rulers held elections too. Suharto's Golkar won every election from 1971 to 1997. In 1973 the other parties were forced to merge into just two, and the government screened their candidates.
Leaders changed constitutions to stay in power. Marcos used martial law to bring in a new constitution in 1973 that gave him wide powers. Mahathir changed Malaysia's constitution in 1983 and 1993 to reduce the powers of the Malay rulers.
Elections could also bring governments down. Marcos's attempt to steal the snap election of February 1986 triggered People Power. Burma's generals called an election in 1990 and then ignored its result, which destroyed their remaining legitimacy.
- Golkar
- Won every election from 1971 to 1997.
- Group Representation Constituencies
- Singapore, 1988.
- Marcos's constitution
- 1973.
Worked example: Judging elections as a source of legitimacy
Why did rulers bother to hold elections?
- At home: elections showed public support.
- Abroad: they reassured allies and investors.
- Control: rules and screening limited the risk.
- Danger: a stolen election could spark revolt, as in 1986.
Watch out for this
Holding elections made a government democratic.
Elections only show democracy when they are free and fair. Golkar's victories in managed elections gave Suharto a show of legitimacy, not real competition.
Check your understanding
What did Suharto's government do to political parties in 1973?
- It forced them to merge into two parties and screened their candidates.
- It banned elections altogether.
- It allowed unlimited new parties.