Governments faced communists, ethnic rebels, Islamic movements and protesting students. They responded with repression, co-option and reform.
Communist movements were the main threat in many countries. Singapore's PAP broke the left-wing Barisan Sosialis by detaining its leaders in Operation Coldstore in 1963. Suharto destroyed the PKI after 1965. The Philippines fought the New People's Army from 1969.
Ethnic and regional rebels challenged several states, such as the Karen and other groups in Burma and the Moro in the southern Philippines.
Students and the urban middle class led protests in several countries. Examples are Thailand in 1973 and 1992, the Philippines in 1986, Burma in 1988 and Indonesia in 1998.
Governments used repression, such as detention without trial under Malaysia's and Singapore's Internal Security Acts. In Malaysia's Operasi Lalang in 1987, more than 100 people were detained.
They also used co-option, bringing rivals inside. Malaysia's Barisan Nasional, formed in 1973-1974, absorbed several former opposition parties, including PAS for a few years.
The Cold War affected these struggles. Anti-communism justified repression and brought US support, while the end of the Cold War made repression harder to justify.
- Operation Coldstore
- 1963, Singapore.
- Barisan Nasional
- Formed 1973-1974; absorbed rivals.
- Operasi Lalang
- 1987, Malaysia.
Worked example: Comparing responses to opposition
How did governments deal with challengers?
- Repression: Coldstore 1963; the PKI 1965-1966; Operasi Lalang 1987.
- Co-option: the Barisan Nasional absorbs rivals.
- Reform: Thailand's new constitution of 1997.
- Failure: Marcos, 1986; Suharto, 1998.
Watch out for this
Repression always kept rulers in power.
Repression worked against small or isolated groups, but it failed against mass movements when the army or elites split, as in the Philippines in 1986.
Check your understanding
What is co-option?
- Bringing rivals into the government or ruling coalition
- Detaining opponents without trial
- Holding a free election