Outcomes varied. Unity was strongest where policies were inclusive and growth was shared, and weakest where minorities faced force and exclusion.
Singapore had no major race riots after 1969, and a strong national identity grew alongside community identities.
Malaysia avoided a repeat of the 1969 riots, helped by economic growth and the coalition system. But communities stayed divided by language, schooling and the special position of Malays.
Indonesia built a strong national identity through language and Pancasila. Yet separatism continued in Aceh and Papua, East Timor voted for independence in 1999, and Chinese Indonesians were attacked in May 1998.
Burma failed to build unity. Dozens of ethnic armies fought the central government throughout the period.
The Philippines and Thailand had partial success. The Philippines signed a peace agreement with the MNLF in 1996 and created an autonomous Muslim region, but other Moro groups fought on. Thailand's southern unrest eased in the 1980s after more conciliatory policies, but the grievances remained.
Approaches changed over time. Indonesia lifted its bans on Chinese culture in 2000. Malaysia's Vision 2020, announced in 1991, spoke of a united "Malaysian nation".
- Singapore
- No major race riots after 1969.
- Burma
- Dozens of ethnic armies.
- MNLF peace
- 1996.
- East Timor
- Votes for independence in 1999.
Worked example: Building a comparative judgement
How successful were efforts to build unity?
- Most successful: Singapore, and Indonesia's national language.
- Partly successful: Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines.
- Least successful: Burma.
- Key factor: inclusion and shared growth.
Watch out for this
Countries with no civil war had achieved national unity.
Peace is not the same as unity. Malaysia avoided violence after 1969, but its communities remained divided in schooling, language and politics.
Check your understanding
Which outcome shows the limits of Indonesia's efforts?
- East Timor's vote for independence in 1999
- The spread of Bahasa Indonesia
- The adoption of Pancasila