Tools: education and language

A shared language and common schooling were powerful tools for unity. Success depended on whether the chosen language felt neutral or belonged to one group.

Indonesia's national language was its greatest success. Bahasa Indonesia, based on Malay, was not the language of the largest group, the Javanese. Nationalists had adopted it in 1928, and after independence it was taught in every school. It became a shared language across hundreds of ethnic groups.

Malaysia made Malay the national language and, from the 1970s, the language of teaching in national secondary schools. This built a common language. But Chinese and Indian communities saw it as favouring Malays, and they kept their own primary schools.

Singapore chose English as its working language, which no community could claim as its own. From 1966 students also had to learn a "mother tongue". This gave a neutral shared language while keeping cultural roots.

Thailand used Thai-language schooling to assimilate Chinese and other minorities. In the Malay-speaking south, Thai schooling was resented, and many families chose Islamic schools instead.

Schools also taught national history, flags and anthems. These built loyalty, though the national story was often the majority's story.

Youth Pledge

1928: one nation, one language.

Malaysia

National Language Act, 1967.

Singapore

English plus a mother tongue from 1966.