The USA pressed Japan to do more for its own defence; Japan moved slowly, spending about 1 per cent of GNP until the late 1980s.
As Japan grew rich, Americans complained that it enjoyed security without paying for it. US pressure for burden sharing grew in the 1970s, especially after the Vietnam War, when the Nixon Doctrine asked Asian allies to do more.
Japan held defence spending to about 1 per cent of its gross national product. A cabinet decision in 1976 made this a formal ceiling. From 1978, Japan paid a growing share of the costs of US bases, known as host-nation support.
In the 1980s, as Soviet military power in the Pacific grew, Prime Minister Nakasone strengthened cooperation with the USA. He described Japan as an "unsinkable aircraft carrier" against Soviet bombers. Japan built up its role in guarding sea lanes up to 1,000 nautical miles, a pledge first made in 1981. In 1987 the 1 per cent ceiling was breached.
Even so, Japan avoided a combat role abroad. The alliance became closer, but Japan's contribution remained mainly financial and defensive.
- 1 per cent ceiling
- Defence spending capped at about 1 per cent of GNP from 1976; breached 1987.
- Host-nation support
- Japan pays part of US base costs from 1978.
- Nakasone
- Prime minister 1982-87: closer defence ties.
Worked example: Assessing alliance tensions
Was the Japan-USA alliance one of tension or cooperation?
- Tension: US complaints about free-riding and trade.
- Cooperation: host-nation support from 1978 and Nakasone's closer defence links.
- Limits: Article 9 and public opinion kept Japan's role defensive.
- Judgement: tension within a stable framework.
Watch out for this
Japan refused to contribute anything to its defence alliance with the USA.
Japan spent about 1 per cent of GNP on defence and paid a growing share of US base costs from 1978. It avoided only a combat role abroad.
Check your understanding
What did Nakasone mean by calling Japan an "unsinkable aircraft carrier"?
- Japan would serve as a barrier against Soviet forces in the Pacific.
- Japan would build aircraft carriers to attack the USSR.
- Japan would leave the alliance.