Organic Chemistry

A hydrocarbon contains carbon and hydrogen only. Natural gas is mainly methane; crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons. Both are non-renewable because they form far more slowly than they are consumed. Burning a fuel releases energy, while the same hydrocarbon feedstock may also be valuable for manufacturing chemicals and plastics.

As hydrocarbon molecules get larger, melting and boiling points generally rise overall, viscosity increases, and volatility decreases. Smaller fractions are useful fuels; larger fractions may be cracked into more sought-after smaller molecules. The amount supplied by fractional distillation need not match the demand for each fraction. Larger molecules generally have stronger intermolecular attractions, so more energy is needed to separate them and the liquid resists flow more. These are trends within comparable members, not a claim that every individual melting point rises smoothly.

Bioethanol can be made from sugars in a crop such as sugarcane and is renewable if the crop is regrown. Growing plants take in carbon dioxide, partly offsetting carbon dioxide released when the ethanol burns. Fossil fuels instead add carbon stored underground to the active carbon cycle. Biofuel is not automatically emission-free: cultivation, processing, transport and land-use change also affect its impact.

A homologous series has a common general formula, similar chemical properties and a gradual change in physical properties as molecule size and mass increase. Successive members differ by CH₂. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons: all carbon-carbon bonds are single. For an unbranched or branched acyclic alkane, the general formula is C_nH_2n+2.

To draw a displayed formula, draw the carbon-carbon connections first, then add individual C-H bonds until each carbon has four bonds. A condensed CH₃ group stands for three separate hydrogens bonded to that carbon. Count atoms after drawing; moving the page or bending a chain does not create a new compound.

Alkanes are generally unreactive, but burn and undergo substitution with chlorine in ultraviolet light. Complete combustion: CH₄(g) + 2O₂(g) -> CO₂(g) + 2H₂O(l), showing cooled products. Limited oxygen can produce carbon monoxide and/or soot. Substitution: CH₄(g) + Cl₂(g) -> CH₃Cl(g) + HCl(g), under UV. One H is replaced by Cl; further substitution is possible.

Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons containing a carbon-carbon double bond. For acyclic molecules with one C=C bond, their general formula is C_nH_2n. Ethene is CH₂=CH₂; propene is CH₂=CH-CH₃. Each carbon still has four bonds in total.

Aqueous bromine distinguishes an alkene from an alkane under the usual test conditions without UV. The alkene decolourises orange/brown bromine water because bromine adds across C=C. Ethene forms CH₂Br-CH₂Br. The alkane does not show this addition reaction. The colour change is an observation; unsaturation is the inference.

Cracking breaks larger hydrocarbons into smaller molecules using strong heating, often with a catalyst. Products can include smaller alkanes, alkenes and hydrogen. Examples of possible balanced changes are C₁₀H₂₂ -> C₈H₁₈ + C₂H₄, and C₂H₆ -> C₂H₄ + H₂. Actual cracking produces a mixture; use atom conservation to deduce a missing product.

Polyunsaturated food molecules contain more than one C=C bond. Hydrogenating unsaturated vegetable oils with hydrogen and a nickel catalyst reduces the number of double bonds, making the product more solid and useful in margarine manufacture. This is addition, not polymerisation.

Alcohols form a homologous series containing the -OH functional group. The group is covalently attached within a molecule; it is not a free hydroxide ion, so the presence of -OH does not make ethanol an alkali.

Expand condensed structures by showing each bond to H separately and checking C has four bonds and O two. Moving -OH along the carbon chain changes the structure, even when the carbon skeleton remains unbranched.

Ethanol burns in sufficient oxygen: C₂H₅OH(l) + 3O₂(g) -> 2CO₂(g) + 3H₂O(l), after cooling. It can also be oxidised to ethanoic acid by atmospheric oxygen, or by warming with acidified potassium manganate(VII). In shorthand, CH₃CH₂OH + 2[O] -> CH₃COOH + H₂O; [O] denotes oxygen supplied by an oxidising agent.

Use ethanol as the representative alcohol-to-acid conversion here. Do not assume that every possible alcohol structure gives a carboxylic acid: the position of -OH matters, and detailed alternative oxidation pathways are beyond these Secondary outcomes.

Carboxylic acids contain the -COOH group, also written -CO₂H. This includes a C=O bond and an O-H bond on the same carbon. Ethanoic acid is CH₃COOH; it can form when ethanol is oxidised by oxygen in air or by warm acidified potassium manganate(VII). The carbon skeleton is retained in this conversion.

Warm a carboxylic acid with an alcohol and a little concentrated sulfuric acid catalyst to form an ester and water. The reaction is reversible. Ethanoic acid and ethanol give ethyl ethanoate: CH₃COOH + HOCH₂CH₃ reversibly form CH₃COOCH₂CH₃ + H₂O. The ester linkage is -C(=O)-O-.

The acid contributes the part ending in -oate, including its C=O carbon. The alcohol contributes the group attached through the ester oxygen. For an alcohol with -OH on a middle carbon, retain that attachment position when drawing the product; a numbered group such as propan-2-yl may be used when naming it.

A polymer is a large molecule built from many smaller monomer molecules. Different monomers give different repeating units and properties. In addition polymerisation, the C=C bonds open to link monomers into a chain; no small molecule is eliminated. Poly(ethene) forms from ethene and is used in plastic bags and clingfilm.

Ethene gives the repeat unit [-CH₂-CH₂-]_n. Propene, CH₂=CH-CH₃, gives [-CH₂-CH(CH₃)-]_n. The CH₃ side group stays attached; it does not become a third carbon in the two-carbon backbone repeat.

Condensation polymerisation joins monomers with suitable functional groups, eliminating small molecules such as water. Nylon is a polyamide, with -C(=O)-NH- links. Terylene is a polyester, with -C(=O)-O- links. Different polymers may differ in their monomer units, their linkages, or both.

A and B stand for the intervening carbon-containing sections, not chemical element symbols. Follow the chain through the bracket boundary to find each linkage. These partial structures explain the polymer class without requiring industrial manufacture details or mechanisms.

Nylon and Terylene are useful man-made fibres: applications include clothing, curtains, fishing line, parachutes and sleeping bags. Suitability depends on properties such as strength, durability and flexibility; knowing the material name is less useful than connecting a property to the job.

For a chain made from HO-A-OH and HOOC-B-COOH, hydrolysis restores these two monomer types. This is depolymerisation: breaking a polymer into its monomers. It is different from merely melting the plastic, which leaves the long molecules largely intact.

Many plastics are non-biodegradable: natural biological processes do not break them down readily. Persistent waste can harm wildlife through ingestion or entanglement, accumulate in habitats and fragment into small pieces. Burning plastics releases carbon dioxide and, depending on the plastic and conditions, other pollutants. Disposal shifts a problem unless its consequences are considered.