Japan had elections, but elected politicians had no firm control over the army and navy.
A civilian leader is a political leader who is not in the armed forces. In Japan, party politicians could lead the cabinet, the prime minister's team of senior ministers. The elected lower house of parliament debated laws and spending. Party government grew stronger in the Taisho period, 1912 to 1926. In 1925, all men aged 25 and over got the vote, because the rule that voters must pay tax was removed. Women still could not vote.
But winning votes did not give the cabinet firm control of the army and navy. The emperor was at the centre of the political system. Military leaders claimed a separate right to command the forces in his name, instead of taking orders from elected politicians. Senior advisers and officials also had influence. So a cabinet could want restraint abroad but struggle to make officers obey.
Many people also lost trust in politicians. Parties quarrelled, faced claims of corruption and were close to big business groups called zaibatsu. Ultranationalism is an extreme nationalism that puts the nation above individuals and can justify ruling other peoples. Ultranationalists attacked compromises, such as agreements to limit the size of navies, saying politicians were making Japan weak. These attacks made restraint harder to defend, but they did not prove that compromise threatened Japan.
- 1925
- All men aged 25 and over gain the vote; women do not.
- Military claim
- Commanded the forces in the emperor's name, not the cabinet's.
- Zaibatsu
- Large business groups linked to party politicians.
Worked example: Who can make an order stick?
A cabinet wants to limit expansion abroad, but officers want to advance.
- The cabinet announces a policy of restraint.
- Officers advance anyway, and the cabinet cannot stop them.
- So elected leaders hold office but cannot enforce their policy on the military.
Watch out for this
Because Japan held elections, the cabinet could command the armed forces.
Military leaders claimed to answer to the emperor, so the cabinet could not reliably control them.
Check your understanding
Why could Japan's cabinet struggle to control the military?
- The cabinet was made up entirely of army officers.
- Military leaders claimed to command in the emperor's name, not under the cabinet.
- Japan had no elections in the 1920s.